਀ Few stories, esp. in the history of science, combine such high stakes with such dramatic appeal. In what were up to that point the Experiments of the Century, Chadwick would research this Bomb issue in spring 1941 using his cyclotron, while his city, Liverpool, and indeed his Physics Department, were being hammered by the Luftwaffe; in one week 3,000 became casualties and more than 70,000 became homeless. The cyclotron was in the basement, and managed to avoid being hit. Occasionally he would step outside after a German bomb raid to check the city with a Geiger Counter for radioactivity, in case Hitler had already learned how to weaponize uranium. Important though his work was, resources in a Britain under siege were so scarce that he had to fight with the Ministry bureaucracy to get enough funds to be able to afford fuel to travel to even a town near Liverpool, in order to confer with personnel producing weaponizable uranium. He and his wife would move from Upstairs to sleep Downstairs, for safety's sake; the raids were so frequent that the Chadwicks stopped going to the bomb shelter, lest they get to do nothing else but go back and forth. Such conditions would make those encountered by physicists at Los Alamos seem to be blissful by comparison. Every night, the windows, and the cardboard which replaced them, would be blown out. (Their twin daughters had been sent to safety in Nova Scotia in July 1940.) . ਀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 伀昀 琀栀攀 漀琀栀攀爀 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀猀琀猀 椀渀瘀漀氀瘀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀⸀䬀⸀ 䈀漀洀戀 瀀爀漀樀攀挀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 洀漀猀琀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀攀渀挀攀搀 眀攀爀攀 渀漀琀 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 挀椀琀椀稀攀渀猀Ⰰ 猀漀 渀漀渀攀 挀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 最椀瘀攀渀 愀挀挀攀猀猀 琀漀 琀栀攀 戀椀最 瀀椀挀琀甀爀攀㬀 琀栀甀猀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 愀氀漀渀攀Ⰰ 椀渀 猀瀀爀椀渀最Ⰰ ㄀㤀㐀㄀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀洀攀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 戀甀爀搀攀渀 漀昀 欀渀漀眀椀渀最Ⰰ 愀猀 栀攀 瘀椀瘀椀搀氀礀 爀攀挀愀氀氀攀搀 搀攀挀愀搀攀猀 氀愀琀攀爀Ⰰ ⠀椀渀 愀 瀀愀猀猀愀最攀 漀昀琀攀渀 焀甀漀琀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 氀椀琀攀爀愀琀甀爀攀 愀戀漀甀琀 琀栀攀 䈀漀洀戀Ⰰ 愀猀 洀漀瘀椀渀最 愀 瀀愀猀猀愀最攀 愀猀 愀渀礀 椀渀 琀栀攀 愀渀渀愀氀猀 漀昀 猀挀椀攀渀挀攀⤀ 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 栀甀洀愀渀 挀漀渀搀椀琀椀漀渀 栀愀搀 爀攀愀挀栀攀搀 愀 琀甀爀渀椀渀最 瀀漀椀渀琀㨀

਀ "I remember the spring of 1941 to this day. I realized then that a nuclear bomb was not only possible - it was inevitable. Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us. Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them to action. And I had nobody to talk to. You see, the chief people in the laboratory were Frisch and Rotblat. However high my opinion of them was, they were not citizens of this country, and the others were quite young boys. And there was nobody to talk to about it. I had many sleepless nights. But I did realize how very, very serious it could be. And I had then to start taking sleeping pills. It was the only remedy, I've never stopped since then. It's 28 years, and I don't think I've missed a single night in all those 28 years." ਀

਀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 䠀椀猀 爀攀瀀甀琀愀琀椀漀渀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 昀漀爀 挀愀甀琀椀漀甀猀 樀甀搀最攀洀攀渀琀 眀愀猀 猀甀挀栀 琀栀愀琀Ⰰ 眀栀攀渀Ⰰ 椀渀 伀挀琀漀戀攀爀 ㄀㤀㐀㄀Ⰰ 栀椀猀 ∀䴀䄀唀䐀 刀攀瀀漀爀琀∀ 漀渀 琀栀攀 䈀漀洀戀✀猀 昀攀愀猀椀戀椀氀椀琀礀 爀攀愀挀栀攀搀 倀爀攀猀椀搀攀渀琀 刀漀漀猀攀瘀攀氀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 爀攀瀀漀爀琀 瀀攀爀猀甀愀搀攀搀 䘀䐀刀 琀漀 愀甀琀栀漀爀椀稀攀 琀栀攀 䴀愀渀栀愀琀琀愀渀 倀爀漀樀攀挀琀 攀瘀攀渀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 倀攀愀爀氀 䠀愀爀戀漀爀 眀愀猀 愀琀琀愀挀欀攀搀㬀 戀攀昀漀爀攀 䘀䐀刀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀搀 琀栀椀猀 刀攀瀀漀爀琀Ⰰ 伀瀀瀀攀渀栀攀椀洀攀爀 眀漀甀氀搀 氀愀琀攀爀 愀搀洀椀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 䈀漀洀戀 攀昀昀漀爀琀 栀愀搀 昀氀漀甀渀搀攀爀攀搀Ⰰ 搀攀猀瀀椀琀攀 䔀椀渀猀琀攀椀渀✀猀 昀愀洀漀甀猀 ㄀㤀㌀㤀 氀攀琀琀攀爀 琀漀 䘀䐀刀 ⠀猀攀攀 匀瀀攀挀椀愀氀 匀攀挀琀椀漀渀 ∀䄀氀攀爀琀椀渀最 䘀䐀刀 琀漀 䈀漀洀戀✀猀 䘀攀愀猀椀戀椀氀椀琀礀Ⰰ∀ 戀攀氀漀眀⤀⸀ 匀甀昀昀椀挀攀 昀漀爀 渀漀眀 琀漀 猀愀礀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀攀 琀爀甀猀琀 眀栀椀挀栀 䄀氀氀椀攀搀 猀琀愀琀攀猀洀攀渀 眀攀爀攀 瀀甀琀琀椀渀最 椀渀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 愀渀搀 漀琀栀攀爀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀椀猀琀猀Ⰰ 琀漀 愀挀挀甀爀愀琀攀氀礀 愀猀猀攀猀猀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀猀瀀攀挀琀猀 漀昀 戀甀椀氀搀椀渀最 愀 䈀漀洀戀Ⰰ 眀愀猀 渀漀琀 洀愀琀挀栀攀搀 戀礀 䠀椀琀氀攀爀✀猀 ⠀氀愀挀欀 漀昀⤀ 琀爀甀猀琀 椀渀 栀椀猀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀椀猀琀猀Ⰰ 猀漀 琀栀愀琀 䌀栀甀爀挀栀椀氀氀 愀渀搀 䘀䐀刀 眀漀甀氀搀 愀甀琀栀漀爀椀稀攀 琀栀攀 甀渀瀀爀攀挀攀搀攀渀琀攀搀氀礀 洀愀猀猀椀瘀攀 攀砀瀀攀渀搀椀琀甀爀攀猀 漀渀 愀渀搀 搀攀瀀氀漀礀洀攀渀琀猀 琀漀眀愀爀搀 猀甀挀栀 愀渀 甀渀搀攀爀琀愀欀椀渀最Ⰰ 眀栀攀爀攀愀猀 䠀椀琀氀攀爀 眀漀甀氀搀 渀漀琀⸀  .... After the U.S. economy geared up for war, the gap between U.S. and U.K. resources was such that the U.S. was the clear senior partner, particularly since, as Mc George Bundy puts it, "the British at the political level were slow in understanding the difficulties in their own program in the year that followed the great intellectual achievement of the MAUD Report." Thus the U.S. effort became dominant, and the Manhattan Project was launched and placed under the direction of U.S. General Leslie Groves. Chadwick was viewed by H.M. Secret Service to be the physicist most likely to be able to persuade Niels Bohr to flee Nazi-occupied Denmark, so a message from Chadwick was smuggled to Bohr, who was thus persuaded to escape to Britain in the fall of 1943, thereafter coming to the U.S. to work with Chadwick, who was first sent to the U.S. in September 1943 as head of the U.K. Mission of scientists contributing to the Bomb Project, and as technical advisor to the U.K. members of the Combined Policy Committee which directed the Project. (He would return to Britain to meet Bohr, just escaped from Denmark, in late September, and then return to the U.S. in November.) As the leading figure in the MAUD saga, sending Chadwick made sense, but he had zero experience in international diplomacy strictly-defined, much less preparation for dealing with such a formidable person as Groves in such a crucial context as the Manhattan Project, the largest international scientific undertaking ever. His challenge was all the greater because of the decline in Anglo-U.S. relations after Britain had spurned the 1941 post-MAUD U.S. proposal for a joint Bomb Project; he would prove to be almost totally responsible for a startling improvement in this situation. ਀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 愀渀搀 眀椀昀攀 猀攀琀 甀瀀 爀攀猀椀搀攀渀挀攀 椀渀 䰀漀猀 䄀氀愀洀漀猀 椀渀 䨀愀渀甀愀爀礀 ㄀㤀㐀㐀Ⰰ 椀渀 愀 氀愀爀最攀 氀漀最 挀愀戀椀渀Ⰰ ⠀漀渀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 昀攀眀 眀椀琀栀 戀愀琀栀琀甀戀猀⤀ 挀栀漀猀攀渀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀洀 戀礀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀㬀 琀栀攀 搀愀甀最栀琀攀爀猀 愀爀爀椀瘀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 䌀愀渀愀搀愀 椀渀 攀愀爀氀礀 猀甀洀洀攀爀⸀ 䜀攀渀攀爀愀氀氀礀Ⰰ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 猀瀀攀渀琀 洀漀猀琀 漀昀 栀椀猀 琀椀洀攀 椀渀 圀愀猀栀椀渀最琀漀渀Ⰰ 䐀⸀䌀⸀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 漀琀栀攀爀 瀀氀愀挀攀猀 眀栀攀爀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 昀愀挀椀氀椀琀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 洀攀攀琀椀渀最猀 眀攀爀攀 氀漀挀愀琀攀搀Ⰰ 椀渀挀氀甀搀椀渀最 椀渀 䌀栀椀挀愀最漀 愀渀搀 一攀眀 夀漀爀欀⸀ 䠀攀 栀愀搀 愀甀琀栀漀爀椀琀礀 漀瘀攀爀 愀氀氀 渀漀渀ⴀ䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀渀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀椀猀琀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 倀爀漀樀攀挀琀Ⰰ ⠀攀砀挀攀瀀琀 䈀漀栀爀⤀ 愀氀氀 漀昀 眀栀漀洀 眀攀爀攀 搀攀猀瀀攀爀愀琀攀氀礀 渀攀攀搀攀搀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀Ⰰ 愀猀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀 瀀甀琀 椀琀Ⰰ 琀栀攀 猀洀愀氀氀 渀甀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 焀甀愀氀椀昀椀攀搀 攀砀瀀攀爀椀洀攀渀琀愀氀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀椀猀琀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 洀攀愀渀琀 琀栀愀琀 ∀眀攀 挀漀甀氀搀 渀漀琀 愀昀昀漀爀搀 渀漀琀 琀漀 甀猀攀 攀瘀攀爀礀漀渀攀 瀀漀猀猀椀戀氀攀⸀∀ 䤀琀 眀愀猀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 樀漀戀 琀漀 瀀攀爀猀甀愀搀攀 琀栀攀洀 琀漀 攀渀搀甀爀攀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ ∀搀椀挀琀愀琀漀爀椀愀氀∀ 爀甀猀栀 琀漀 戀甀椀氀搀 愀 戀漀洀戀 愀琀 愀氀氀 挀漀猀琀猀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 渀漀渀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 氀攀愀欀猀 漀昀 瀀爀漀樀攀挀琀 猀攀挀爀攀琀猀 猀漀 昀攀愀爀攀搀 戀礀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀㬀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 猀琀愀琀甀爀攀 愀猀 愀 一漀戀攀氀 氀愀甀爀攀愀琀攀 眀愀猀 椀渀搀椀猀瀀攀渀猀愀戀氀攀 昀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 琀愀猀欀⸀ 䠀椀猀 攀砀瀀攀爀琀椀猀攀 愀渀搀 愀瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀愀氀 戀攀渀琀 眀漀渀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 挀漀渀昀椀搀攀渀挀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀 挀漀渀挀氀甀搀攀搀 琀栀愀琀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 爀攀瀀漀爀琀猀 昀爀漀洀 䰀漀猀 䄀氀愀洀漀猀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 洀漀爀攀 爀攀氀椀愀戀氀攀 琀栀愀渀 琀栀漀猀攀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀攀搀 戀礀 氀攀昀琀椀猀琀猀 氀椀欀攀 伀瀀瀀攀渀栀攀椀洀攀爀㬀 栀椀猀 氀漀礀愀氀琀礀 渀漀琀 椀渀 焀甀攀猀琀椀漀渀Ⰰ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 挀漀甀氀搀 瀀攀爀猀甀愀搀攀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀 琀漀 洀漀搀椀昀礀 栀椀猀 琀椀最栀琀ⴀ猀攀挀甀爀椀琀礀 瀀漀氀椀挀礀 猀漀洀攀眀栀愀琀Ⰰ 瀀愀爀琀椀挀甀氀愀爀氀礀 愀猀 琀漀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 搀攀猀椀爀攀 琀漀 椀猀漀氀愀琀攀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀椀猀琀猀 昀爀漀洀 攀渀最椀渀攀攀爀猀⸀ 伀渀氀礀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 栀椀猀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀渀 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀昀椀挀 愀搀瘀椀猀漀爀Ⰰ ⠀渀漀琀 愀 一漀戀攀氀 氀愀甀爀攀愀琀攀⤀ 愀渀搀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 瀀爀椀瘀礀 琀漀 愀渀 漀瘀攀爀愀氀氀 瀀攀爀猀瀀攀挀琀椀瘀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀樀攀挀琀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀甀猀 漀昀 椀琀猀 瘀愀爀椀漀甀猀 昀愀挀椀氀椀琀椀攀猀 愀挀爀漀猀猀 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 䘀甀爀琀栀攀爀洀漀爀攀Ⰰ 愀猀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀 氀愀琀攀爀 瀀甀琀 椀琀Ⰰ ∀椀昀 䐀爀⸀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 栀愀搀 戀攀攀渀 椀渀 挀栀愀爀最攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 愀琀 琀栀愀琀 琀椀洀攀 嬀漀昀 刀攀搀 猀瀀礀 䬀氀愀甀猀 䘀甀挀栀猀✀ 樀漀椀渀椀渀最 琀栀攀 洀椀猀猀椀漀渀崀⸀⸀⸀䤀 愀洀 猀甀爀攀 琀栀愀琀 渀漀 猀甀挀栀 搀攀挀攀瀀琀椀漀渀 嬀戀礀 䘀甀挀栀猀崀 眀漀甀氀搀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 愀琀琀攀洀瀀琀攀搀⸀∀ 匀甀挀栀 眀愀猀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 琀爀甀猀琀 椀渀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 琀栀愀琀 匀椀爀 䨀愀洀攀猀 眀漀甀氀搀 琀栀攀爀攀愀昀琀攀爀 戀攀 戀礀 昀愀爀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 挀氀漀猀攀猀琀 昀爀椀攀渀搀 愀洀漀渀最 琀栀攀 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀猀琀猀㬀 琀漀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀Ⰰ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 眀愀猀 ∀眀栀漀氀氀礀 猀琀爀愀椀最栀琀昀漀爀眀愀爀搀 愀渀搀 栀漀渀攀猀琀⸀⸀⸀愀 琀爀甀攀 最攀渀琀氀攀洀愀渀⸀∀ 吀栀椀猀 挀漀渀昀椀搀攀渀挀攀 椀渀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 眀漀甀氀搀 爀攀猀甀氀琀 椀渀 栀椀猀 猀眀愀礀 挀漀洀椀渀最 琀漀 瀀攀爀琀愀椀渀 琀漀Ⰰ 渀漀琀 樀甀猀琀 琀栀攀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀攀爀猀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 愀氀洀漀猀琀 琀栀攀 攀渀琀椀爀攀 瀀爀漀樀攀挀琀㬀 漀渀攀 猀琀甀搀攀渀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 洀愀琀琀攀爀 ⠀椀渀 愀 爀攀瘀椀攀眀 漀昀 䈀爀漀眀渀✀猀 戀椀漀最爀愀瀀栀礀 漀昀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀⤀ 挀愀氀氀猀 栀椀洀 ∀䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 瘀椀挀攀爀漀礀 愀洀漀渀最 琀栀攀 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀猀琀猀⸀∀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 愀渀搀 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀✀ 昀爀椀攀渀搀猀栀椀瀀 眀漀甀氀搀 戀攀 氀椀昀攀琀椀洀攀⸀  .... To his scientific expertise he had to add diplomatic finesse, as when he managed to persuade his own government and French physicists of the error of their disputing Groves' veto of these physicists' wish to visit their homeland after the Liberation; the big secret did not leak to Hitler, and Chadwick got to see "his neutron" in action in the successful bomb test at Los Alamos. As described by William Lawrence, New York Times ace reporter, "Never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man ..." Churchill, in his 6 August 1945 statement issued just after Hiroshima was devastated, would assess U.S.- British collaboration as follows:਀⸀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 The smoothness with which the arrangements for cooperation which were made in 1943 have been carried into effect ... reflects great credit on all concerned - on the members of the Combined Policy Committee which we set up; on the enthusiasm with which our scientists and technicians gave of their best - particularly Sir James Chadwick who gave up his work at Liverpool to serve as technical advisor to the United Kingdom members of the Policy Committee and spared no effort ... ਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 U.S. writer Stephane Groeff's 1967 book Manhattan Project (sponsored by Reader's Digest) would assert that "the contribution of the British mission was inestimable." ਀⸀ 㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 ..................................................... Post-WWII਀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 昀氀攀眀 琀漀 䈀爀椀琀愀椀渀 椀渀 一漀瘀攀洀戀攀爀 ㄀㤀㐀㔀 琀漀 戀攀 欀渀椀最栀琀攀搀 戀礀 䬀椀渀最 䜀攀漀爀最攀 嘀䤀Ⰰ 琀栀攀渀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀Ⰰ 爀攀瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 唀⸀䬀⸀ 愀琀 琀栀攀 唀⸀一⸀ 愀猀 戀漀琀栀 猀挀椀攀渀挀攀 愀搀瘀椀猀漀爀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀氀琀攀爀渀愀琀攀 爀攀瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀愀琀椀瘀攀Ⰰ 琀漀 琀栀攀 䄀琀漀洀椀挀 䔀渀攀爀最礀 䌀漀洀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 甀渀琀椀氀 猀甀洀洀攀爀 ㄀㤀㐀㘀Ⰰ 眀栀攀渀 栀攀 琀椀爀攀搀 漀昀 渀甀挀氀攀愀爀 搀椀瀀氀漀洀愀挀礀 愀渀搀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 䰀椀瘀攀爀瀀漀漀氀Ⰰ 漀渀氀礀 琀漀 爀攀琀甀爀渀 琀漀 琀栀攀 唀⸀一⸀ 昀漀爀 琀眀漀 洀漀渀琀栀猀 攀愀爀氀礀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㐀㜀Ⰰ 戀攀昀漀爀攀 氀攀愀瘀椀渀最 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 昀漀爀 最漀漀搀 ⠀猀攀攀 猀攀挀琀椀漀渀 戀攀氀漀眀 漀渀 瘀椀猀愀 爀攀樀攀挀琀椀漀渀⤀⸀ 䠀攀 眀漀甀氀搀 挀漀渀琀椀渀甀攀 琀漀 戀攀 愀 搀爀椀瘀椀渀最 椀渀昀氀甀攀渀挀攀 甀瀀漀渀 䈀爀椀琀愀椀渀✀猀 洀漀瘀攀 琀漀 戀甀椀氀搀 愀 渀甀挀氀攀愀爀 愀爀猀攀渀愀氀Ⰰ 猀甀挀挀攀攀搀椀渀最 椀渀 瀀攀爀猀甀愀搀椀渀最 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀ 琀漀 栀漀渀漀爀 椀琀猀 眀愀爀琀椀洀攀 愀最爀攀攀洀攀渀琀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 唀⸀䬀⸀ 琀漀 猀栀愀爀攀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀椀稀愀戀氀攀 甀爀愀渀椀甀洀⸀ 䠀攀 眀愀猀 渀愀洀攀搀 挀栀愀椀爀洀愀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 渀攀眀 刀漀礀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀 䄀搀瘀椀猀漀爀礀 䌀漀洀洀椀琀琀攀攀 漀渀 琀栀攀 一甀挀氀攀愀爀 刀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀 䌀攀渀琀爀攀 椀渀 䨀愀渀甀愀爀礀 ㄀㤀㔀㈀⸀ 䤀渀 ㄀㤀㐀㠀Ⰰ 栀攀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀 愀猀 䴀愀猀琀攀爀 漀昀 䜀漀渀瘀椀氀氀攀 愀渀搀 䌀愀椀甀猀 䌀漀氀氀攀最攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 氀愀琀攀爀 眀攀愀爀椀攀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀猀 琀栀攀爀攀Ⰰ 氀攀愀瘀椀渀最 椀渀 ㄀㤀㔀㠀㬀 椀琀 眀愀猀 搀甀爀椀渀最 栀椀猀 䴀愀猀琀攀爀猀栀椀瀀 愀琀 琀栀愀琀 䌀爀椀挀欀 ⠀眀椀琀栀 圀愀琀猀漀渀⤀ 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀攀搀 琀栀攀 䐀一䄀 搀漀甀戀氀攀 栀攀氀椀砀⸀ 䠀攀 眀愀猀 漀昀昀攀爀攀搀 琀栀攀 瀀漀猀琀 漀昀 嘀椀挀攀ⴀ䌀栀愀渀挀攀氀氀漀爀 漀昀 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀Ⰰ 戀甀琀 搀攀挀氀椀渀攀搀 昀漀爀 栀攀愀氀琀栀 爀攀愀猀漀渀猀⸀ 唀渀琀椀氀 栀椀猀 爀攀琀椀爀攀洀攀渀琀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㘀㈀Ⰰ 栀攀 挀漀渀琀椀渀甀攀搀 琀漀 攀愀爀渀 栀椀猀 爀攀瀀甀琀愀琀椀漀渀 昀漀爀 戀攀椀渀最 椀渀搀攀昀愀琀椀最愀戀氀攀 戀礀 戀攀椀渀最 椀洀洀攀爀猀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 瀀漀氀椀琀椀挀猀 愀渀搀 搀椀瀀氀漀洀愀挀礀 漀昀 渀甀挀氀攀愀爀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀猀Ⰰ 猀攀爀瘀椀渀最 愀猀 挀栀愀椀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 一甀挀氀攀愀爀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 匀甀戀ⴀ䌀漀洀洀椀琀琀攀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 唀⸀䬀⸀ 䄀琀漀洀椀挀 䔀渀攀爀最礀 䄀搀瘀椀猀漀爀礀 䌀漀洀洀椀琀琀攀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 愀猀 愀 洀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 唀⸀䬀⸀ 䄀搀瘀椀猀漀爀礀 䌀漀洀洀椀琀琀攀攀 漀渀 䄀琀漀洀椀挀 䔀渀攀爀最礀⸀ .... Chadwick preferred obscurity to glory, and refrained from public statements on the politics of the bomb; he held that such debates were for the public, not scientists, to dominate. However, after retiring, he did participate in interesting ways: in 1961 Pope John XXIII named him to join fifty-five others as a member of the Pontifical Academy of Science; this did not prevent Chadwick from joining 80 other Nobel Laureates' 1965 petition to the Vatican against the Pope's opposition to birth control.਀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 挀愀渀 戀攀 猀愀椀搀 琀漀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 最爀攀愀琀攀猀琀Ⰰ 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀猀琀ⴀ搀椀瀀氀漀洀愀琀 䈀攀昀漀爀攀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀Ⰰ 猀挀椀攀渀挀攀 愀渀搀 猀琀愀琀攀挀爀愀昀琀 眀攀爀攀 愀氀洀漀猀琀 挀漀洀瀀氀攀琀攀氀礀 猀攀瀀愀爀愀琀攀 爀攀愀氀洀猀㬀 愀昀琀攀爀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 琀漀 琀栀攀 唀⸀匀⸀Ⰰ 猀挀椀攀渀琀椀猀琀猀 眀漀甀氀搀 爀攀最甀氀愀爀氀礀 戀攀 愀琀琀愀挀栀攀搀 琀漀 搀椀瀀氀漀洀愀琀椀挀 搀攀氀攀最愀琀椀漀渀猀 椀渀 愀氀氀 挀漀渀昀攀爀攀渀挀攀猀 ⠀攀猀瀀⸀ 猀甀洀洀椀琀 洀攀攀琀椀渀最猀⤀ 漀昀 爀攀愀氀 椀渀琀攀爀渀愀琀椀漀渀愀氀 椀洀瀀漀爀琀愀渀挀攀⸀ 吀栀愀琀 栀椀猀 爀漀氀攀 栀愀猀 戀攀攀渀 猀漀 漀戀猀挀甀爀攀搀 椀猀 挀氀攀愀爀氀礀 搀甀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 昀愀挀琀 琀栀愀琀 栀椀猀 瀀攀爀猀漀渀愀氀 猀琀礀氀攀 眀愀猀 猀漀 漀瀀瀀漀猀椀琀攀 琀漀 琀栀攀 猀琀礀氀攀猀 漀昀 䔀椀渀猀琀攀椀渀 愀渀搀 伀瀀瀀攀渀栀攀椀洀攀爀Ⰰ 眀栀漀 攀渀樀漀礀椀渀最 琀栀攀 氀椀洀攀氀椀最栀琀㬀 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀✀猀 爀攀瀀甀琀愀琀椀漀渀 眀椀琀栀 栀椀猀 挀漀氀氀攀愀最甀攀猀 昀漀爀 椀渀琀攀最爀椀琀礀Ⰰ 洀漀搀攀猀琀礀Ⰰ 猀栀礀渀攀猀猀 愀渀搀 猀琀椀昀昀渀攀猀猀Ⰰ 眀愀猀 瀀愀爀愀氀氀攀氀攀搀 戀礀 愀 搀椀猀琀愀渀琀 愀琀琀椀琀甀搀攀 琀漀眀愀爀搀 琀栀攀 洀攀搀椀愀Ⰰ 愀渀 愀琀琀椀琀甀搀攀 眀栀椀挀栀 愀氀洀漀猀琀 挀攀爀琀愀椀渀氀礀 栀攀氀瀀攀搀 攀渀搀攀愀爀 栀椀洀 琀漀 䜀攀渀⸀ 䜀爀漀瘀攀猀⸀

਀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀⸀ 匀椀最渀椀昀椀挀愀渀挀攀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䐀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀礀 漀昀 琀栀攀 一攀甀琀爀漀渀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㌀㈀Ⰰ 渀漀琀 氀愀琀攀爀 .... This discovery, while immediately seen to be important, has been particularly underrated from the standpoint of the significance of its timing, since subsequent history may have been quite different had the neutron been discovered even a year later than it was. The eventual invention of an A-bomb was inevitable, but its timing mattered greatly. Had the post-1932 breakthroughs in nuclear physics, such as the creation of the first chain reaction, been likewise delayed even a year, the A-bomb might have been ready for use, not in August 1945, but in August 1946, too late to have been used against Japan, which would probably have been conquered by then. As put by Kai Bird and Gar Alperovitz, in their assessment of physics' progress from 1905 (Einstein) through 1932 (Chadwick) to1938 (Fermi), ਀⸀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 It is rarely acknowledged that had this line of development not been moving at this particular rate we would never have gotten to ...the 1941 MAUD Committee report, and then to the Manhattan Project - to the point ... where large sums of money ... could have produced an atomic bomb by August 1945.਀⸀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 .... The significance of this wartime first-use of the Bomb was described by Chadwick thusly: . ਀䤀琀 椀猀 ⸀⸀⸀ 昀漀爀琀甀渀愀琀攀 琀栀愀琀 琀栀椀猀 眀攀愀瀀漀渀 眀愀猀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀攀搀 搀甀爀椀渀最 琀栀攀 眀愀爀Ⰰ 昀椀爀猀琀氀礀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 椀琀猀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀 椀渀 琀椀洀攀 漀昀 瀀攀愀挀攀 眀漀甀氀搀 栀愀瘀攀 漀挀挀甀爀爀攀搀 洀漀爀攀 漀爀 氀攀猀猀 挀漀渀挀甀爀爀攀渀琀氀礀 椀渀 搀椀昀昀攀爀攀渀琀 挀漀甀渀琀爀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 挀漀洀瀀攀琀椀琀椀漀渀 眀漀甀氀搀 琀栀攀爀攀戀礀 栀愀瘀攀 戀攀攀渀 椀渀攀瘀椀琀愀戀氀攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 猀攀挀漀渀搀氀礀Ⰰ 戀攀挀愀甀猀攀 琀栀攀 猀甀昀昀攀爀椀渀最猀 愀渀搀 栀愀瘀漀挀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 眀愀爀 栀愀瘀攀 戀爀愀渀搀攀搀 椀渀琀漀 漀甀爀 洀椀渀搀猀 琀栀攀 洀攀爀挀椀氀攀猀猀 渀愀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 眀愀爀 愀渀搀 栀愀瘀攀 洀愀搀攀 甀猀 氀漀渀最 昀漀爀 瀀攀愀挀攀 愀猀 渀攀瘀攀爀 戀攀昀漀爀攀⸀  ਀㰀⼀瀀㸀㰀瀀㸀 .... Without the memory of the horror of Hiroshima to deter war between the Soviets and the West, such a war probably would almost certainly have occurred, one way or the other, possibly with atomic weapons; the still-secret nature of this super-weapon (each superpower hiding Bomb-possession from the other until deciding to surprise the other with a devastating strike) would have had profound impact upon the strategic situation, with potentially fateful results. In the likely event that the U.S. finished building a Bomb before the Soviets, the U.S., in the event of war with the Soviets, would have faced a decision over Bomb-use even more momentous than that which Truman actually faced over Bomb-use against Japan, since he may or may not have been as confident of the lack of a Soviet retaliatory capacity as he actually was of the lack of a Japanese retaliatory capacity. At least the Soviets would have been less likely to miscalculate, had they produced a Bomb before the U.S. had revealed possession of such a device, in that their atomic capacity came (and would have come) partly from U.S. secrets delivered by pro-Soviet scientists working in the Manhattan Project almost from its inception; Soviet knowledge that the U.S. had a retaliatory capacity would likely have deterred the Soviets from striking first. In any case, such a war would have made the world a very different place than it is now.਀㰀⼀瀀㸀 ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ James Chadwick was born in Cheshire, England, on 20th October, 1891, the son of John Joseph Chadwick and Anne Mary Knowles. He attended Manchester High School prior to entering Manchester University in 1908; he graduated from the Honours School of Physics in 1911 and spent the next two years under Professor (later Lord) Rutherford in the Physical Laboratory in Manchester, where he worked on various radioactivity problems, gaining his M.Sc. degree in 1913. That same year he was awarded the 1851 Exhibition Scholarship and proceeded to Berlin to work in the Physikalisch Technische Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg under Professor H. Geiger.਀ During World War I, ਀ 栀攀 眀愀猀 椀渀琀攀爀渀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 娀椀瘀椀氀最攀昀愀渀最攀渀攀渀氀愀最攀爀Ⰰ 刀甀栀氀攀戀攀渀⸀ 䄀昀琀攀爀 琀栀攀 眀愀爀Ⰰ 椀渀 ㄀㤀㄀㤀Ⰰ 栀攀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀 琀漀 愀挀挀攀瀀琀 琀栀攀 圀漀氀氀愀猀琀漀渀 匀琀甀搀攀渀琀猀栀椀瀀 愀琀 䜀漀渀瘀椀氀氀攀 愀渀搀 䌀愀椀甀猀 䌀漀氀氀攀最攀Ⰰ 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀漀 爀攀猀甀洀攀 眀漀爀欀 甀渀搀攀爀 刀甀琀栀攀爀昀漀爀搀Ⰰ 眀栀漀 椀渀 琀栀攀 洀攀愀渀琀椀洀攀 栀愀搀 洀漀瘀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 䌀愀瘀攀渀搀椀猀栀 䰀愀戀漀爀愀琀漀爀礀Ⰰ 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀⸀ 刀甀琀栀攀爀昀漀爀搀 栀愀搀 猀甀挀挀攀攀搀攀搀 琀栀愀琀 礀攀愀爀 椀渀 搀椀猀椀渀琀攀最爀愀琀椀渀最 愀琀漀洀猀 戀礀 戀漀洀戀愀爀搀椀渀最 渀椀琀爀漀最攀渀 眀椀琀栀 愀氀瀀栀愀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀氀攀猀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 攀洀椀猀猀椀漀渀 漀昀 愀 瀀爀漀琀漀渀⸀ 吀栀椀猀 眀愀猀 琀栀攀 昀椀爀猀琀 愀爀琀椀昀椀挀椀愀氀 渀甀挀氀攀愀爀 琀爀愀渀猀昀漀爀洀愀琀椀漀渀⸀ 䤀渀 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀Ⰰ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 樀漀椀渀攀搀 刀甀琀栀攀爀昀漀爀搀 椀渀 愀挀挀漀洀瀀氀椀猀栀椀渀最 琀栀攀 琀爀愀渀猀洀甀琀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 漀琀栀攀爀 氀椀最栀琀 攀氀攀洀攀渀琀猀 戀礀 戀漀洀戀愀爀搀洀攀渀琀 眀椀琀栀 愀氀瀀栀愀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀氀攀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 椀渀 洀愀欀椀渀最 猀琀甀搀椀攀猀 漀昀 琀栀攀 瀀爀漀瀀攀爀琀椀攀猀 愀渀搀 猀琀爀甀挀琀甀爀攀 漀昀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 渀甀挀氀攀椀⸀ ਀㰀栀㐀㸀䠀攀 眀愀猀 攀氀攀挀琀攀搀 䘀攀氀氀漀眀 漀昀 䜀漀渀瘀椀氀氀攀 愀渀搀 䌀愀椀甀猀 䌀漀氀氀攀最攀 ⠀㄀㤀㈀㄀ⴀ㄀㤀㌀㔀⤀ 愀渀搀 戀攀挀愀洀攀 䄀猀猀椀猀琀愀渀琀 䐀椀爀攀挀琀漀爀 漀昀 刀攀猀攀愀爀挀栀 椀渀 琀栀攀 䌀愀瘀攀渀搀椀猀栀 䰀愀戀漀爀愀琀漀爀礀 ⠀㄀㤀㈀㌀⤀⸀ 䤀渀 ㄀㤀㈀㜀 栀攀 眀愀猀 攀氀攀挀琀攀搀 愀 䘀攀氀氀漀眀 漀昀 琀栀攀 刀漀礀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀⸀ ਀㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀㸀䤀渀 ㄀㤀㌀㈀Ⰰ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 洀愀搀攀 愀 昀甀渀搀愀洀攀渀琀愀氀 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀礀 椀渀 琀栀攀 搀漀洀愀椀渀 漀昀 渀甀挀氀攀愀爀 猀挀椀攀渀挀攀㨀 栀攀 瀀爀漀瘀攀搀 琀栀攀 攀砀椀猀琀攀渀挀攀 漀昀 渀攀甀琀爀漀渀猀 ⴀ 攀氀攀洀攀渀琀愀爀礀 瀀愀爀琀椀挀氀攀猀 搀攀瘀漀椀搀 漀昀 愀渀礀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀愀氀 挀栀愀爀最攀⸀ 䤀渀 挀漀渀琀爀愀猀琀 眀椀琀栀 琀栀攀 栀攀氀椀甀洀 渀甀挀氀攀椀 ⠀愀氀瀀栀愀 爀愀礀猀⤀ 眀栀椀挀栀 愀爀攀 挀栀愀爀最攀搀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀爀攀昀漀爀攀 爀攀瀀攀氀氀攀搀 戀礀 琀栀攀 挀漀渀猀椀搀攀爀愀戀氀攀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀愀氀 昀漀爀挀攀猀 瀀爀攀猀攀渀琀 椀渀 琀栀攀 渀甀挀氀攀椀 漀昀 栀攀愀瘀礀 愀琀漀洀猀Ⰰ 琀栀椀猀 渀攀眀 琀漀漀氀 椀渀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 搀椀猀椀渀琀攀最爀愀琀椀漀渀 渀攀攀搀 渀漀琀 漀瘀攀爀挀漀洀攀 愀渀礀 攀氀攀挀琀爀椀挀 戀愀爀爀椀攀爀 愀渀搀 椀猀 挀愀瀀愀戀氀攀 漀昀 瀀攀渀攀琀爀愀琀椀渀最 愀渀搀 猀瀀氀椀琀琀椀渀最 琀栀攀 渀甀挀氀攀椀 漀昀 攀瘀攀渀 琀栀攀 栀攀愀瘀椀攀猀琀 攀氀攀洀攀渀琀猀⸀ 䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 椀渀 琀栀椀猀 眀愀礀 瀀爀攀瀀愀爀攀搀 琀栀攀 眀愀礀 琀漀眀愀爀搀猀 琀栀攀 昀椀猀猀椀漀渀 漀昀 甀爀愀渀椀甀洀 ㈀㌀㔀 愀渀搀 琀漀眀愀爀搀猀 琀栀攀 挀爀攀愀琀椀漀渀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 戀漀洀戀⸀ 䘀漀爀 琀栀椀猀 攀瀀漀挀栀ⴀ洀愀欀椀渀最 搀椀猀挀漀瘀攀爀礀 栀攀 眀愀猀 愀眀愀爀搀攀搀 琀栀攀 䠀甀最栀攀猀 䴀攀搀愀氀 漀昀 琀栀攀 刀漀礀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㌀㈀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 猀甀戀猀攀焀甀攀渀琀氀礀 琀栀攀 一漀戀攀氀 倀爀椀稀攀 昀漀爀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㌀㔀⸀ ਀䠀攀 爀攀洀愀椀渀攀搀 愀琀 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀 甀渀琀椀氀 ㄀㤀㌀㔀 眀栀攀渀 栀攀 眀愀猀 攀氀攀挀琀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 䰀礀漀渀 䨀漀渀攀猀 䌀栀愀椀爀 漀昀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀礀 漀昀 䰀椀瘀攀爀瀀漀漀氀⸀ 䘀爀漀洀 ㄀㤀㐀㌀ 琀漀 ㄀㤀㐀㘀 栀攀 眀漀爀欀攀搀 椀渀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 匀琀愀琀攀猀 愀猀 䠀攀愀搀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䈀爀椀琀椀猀栀 䴀椀猀猀椀漀渀 愀琀琀愀挀栀攀搀 琀漀 琀栀攀 䴀愀渀栀愀琀琀愀渀 倀爀漀樀攀挀琀 昀漀爀 琀栀攀 搀攀瘀攀氀漀瀀洀攀渀琀 漀昀 琀栀攀 愀琀漀洀椀挀 戀漀洀戀⸀ 䠀攀 爀攀琀甀爀渀攀搀 琀漀 䔀渀最氀愀渀搀 愀渀搀Ⰰ 椀渀 ㄀㤀㐀㠀Ⰰ 爀攀琀椀爀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 愀挀琀椀瘀攀 瀀栀礀猀椀挀猀 愀渀搀 栀椀猀 瀀漀猀椀琀椀漀渀 愀琀 䰀椀瘀攀爀瀀漀漀氀 漀渀 栀椀猀 攀氀攀挀琀椀漀渀 愀猀 䴀愀猀琀攀爀 漀昀 䜀漀渀瘀椀氀氀攀 愀渀搀 䌀愀椀甀猀 䌀漀氀氀攀最攀Ⰰ 䌀愀洀戀爀椀搀最攀⸀ 䠀攀 爀攀琀椀爀攀搀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀椀猀 䴀愀猀琀攀爀猀栀椀瀀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㔀㤀⸀ 䘀爀漀洀 ㄀㤀㔀㜀 琀漀 ㄀㤀㘀㈀ 栀攀 眀愀猀 愀 瀀愀爀琀琀椀洀攀 洀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀琀攀搀 䬀椀渀最搀漀洀 䄀琀漀洀椀挀 䔀渀攀爀最礀 䄀甀琀栀漀爀椀琀礀⸀ ਀㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀㸀䌀栀愀搀眀椀挀欀 栀愀猀 栀愀搀 洀愀渀礀 瀀愀瀀攀爀猀 瀀甀戀氀椀猀栀攀搀 漀渀 琀栀攀 琀漀瀀椀挀 漀昀 爀愀搀椀漀愀挀琀椀瘀椀琀礀 愀渀搀 挀漀渀渀攀挀琀攀搀 瀀爀漀戀氀攀洀猀 愀渀搀Ⰰ 眀椀琀栀 䰀漀爀搀 刀甀琀栀攀爀昀漀爀搀 愀渀搀 䌀⸀ 䐀⸀ 䔀氀氀椀猀Ⰰ 栀攀 椀猀 挀漀ⴀ愀甀琀栀漀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 戀漀漀欀 刀愀搀椀愀琀椀漀渀猀 昀爀漀洀 刀愀搀椀漀愀挀琀椀瘀攀 猀甀戀猀琀愀渀挀攀猀 ⠀㄀㤀㌀　⤀⸀ ਀匀椀爀 䨀愀洀攀猀 眀愀猀 欀渀椀最栀琀攀搀 椀渀 ㄀㤀㐀㔀⸀ 䄀瀀愀爀琀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 䠀甀最栀攀猀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀刀漀礀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀⤀ 洀攀渀琀椀漀渀攀搀 愀戀漀瘀攀Ⰰ 栀攀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀攀搀 琀栀攀 䌀漀瀀氀攀礀 䴀攀搀愀氀 ⠀㄀㤀㔀　⤀ 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䘀爀愀渀欀氀椀渀 䴀攀搀愀氀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䘀爀愀渀欀氀椀渀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀Ⰰ 倀栀椀氀愀搀攀氀瀀栀椀愀 ⠀㄀㤀㔀㄀⤀⸀ 䠀攀 椀猀 愀渀 䠀漀渀漀爀愀爀礀 䘀攀氀氀漀眀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀 漀昀 倀栀礀猀椀挀猀 愀渀搀Ⰰ 椀渀 愀搀搀椀琀椀漀渀 琀漀 爀攀挀攀椀瘀椀渀最 栀漀渀漀爀愀爀礀 搀漀挀琀漀爀愀琀攀 搀攀最爀攀攀猀 昀爀漀洀 琀栀攀 唀渀椀瘀攀爀猀椀琀椀攀猀 漀昀 刀攀愀搀椀渀最Ⰰ 䐀甀戀氀椀渀Ⰰ 䰀攀攀搀猀Ⰰ 伀砀昀漀爀搀Ⰰ 䈀椀爀洀椀渀最栀愀洀Ⰰ 䴀漀渀琀爀攀愀氀 ⠀䴀挀䜀椀氀氀⤀Ⰰ 䰀椀瘀攀爀瀀漀漀氀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 䔀搀椀渀戀甀爀最栀Ⰰ 栀攀 椀猀 愀 洀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 猀攀瘀攀爀愀氀 昀漀爀攀椀最渀 愀挀愀搀攀洀椀攀猀Ⰰ 戀攀椀渀最 䄀猀猀漀挀椀 漀昀琀 栀攀 䄀挀愀搀洀椀攀 刀漀礀愀氀攀 搀攀 䈀攀氀最椀焀甀攀㬀 䘀漀爀攀椀最渀 䴀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䬀漀渀最攀氀椀最攀 䐀愀渀猀欀攀 嘀椀搀攀渀猀欀愀戀攀爀渀攀猀 匀攀氀猀欀愀戀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䬀漀渀椀渀欀氀椀樀欀攀 一攀搀攀爀氀愀渀搀猀攀 䄀欀愀搀攀洀椀攀 瘀愀渀 圀攀琀攀渀猀挀栀愀瀀瀀攀渀㬀 䌀漀爀爀攀猀瀀漀渀搀椀渀最 䴀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 匀挀栀猀椀猀挀栀攀 䄀欀愀搀攀洀椀攀 搀攀爀 圀椀猀猀攀渀猀挀栀愀昀琀攀渀Ⰰ 䰀攀椀瀀稀椀最㬀 䴀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 倀漀渀琀椀昀椀挀椀愀 䄀挀愀搀攀洀椀愀 匀挀椀攀渀琀椀愀爀甀洀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䘀爀愀渀欀氀椀渀 䤀渀猀琀椀琀甀琀攀㬀 䠀漀渀漀爀愀爀礀 䴀攀洀戀攀爀 漀昀 琀栀攀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀渀 倀栀椀氀漀猀漀瀀栀椀挀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀 愀渀搀 琀栀攀 䄀洀攀爀椀挀愀渀 倀栀礀猀椀挀愀氀 匀漀挀椀攀琀礀⸀ ਀㰀⼀栀㐀㸀㰀栀㐀㸀䤀渀 ㄀㤀㈀㔀Ⰰ 栀攀 洀愀爀爀椀攀搀 䄀椀氀攀攀渀 匀琀攀眀愀爀琀ⴀ䈀爀漀眀渀 漀昀 䰀椀瘀攀爀瀀漀漀氀⸀ 吀栀攀礀 栀愀瘀攀 琀眀椀渀 搀愀甀最栀琀攀爀猀Ⰰ 愀渀搀 氀椀瘀攀 愀琀 䐀攀渀戀椀最栀Ⰰ 一漀爀琀栀 圀愀氀攀猀⸀ 䠀椀猀 栀漀戀戀椀攀猀 椀渀挀氀甀搀攀 最愀爀搀攀渀椀渀最 愀渀搀 昀椀猀栀椀渀最⸀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀㰀⼀栀㐀㸀 ਀ ਀ ਀ ਀ sponsors link òþíèíã àâòî
òþíèíã ìàøèí